Difference between revisions of "Table 5-1"

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    <td width="137" bgcolor="#dddddd"><p><strong>Test Type</strong></p></td>
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    <td width="241" bgcolor="#dddddd"><p><strong>Test Methods and Description</strong></p></td>
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    <td width="252" bgcolor="#dddddd"><p><strong>Use in Water Quality Prediction</strong></p></td>
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    <td width="313" bgcolor="#dddddd"><p><strong>Advantages</strong></p></td>
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    <td width="319" bgcolor="#dddddd"><p><strong>Limitations</strong></p></td>
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    <td width="137" rowspan="3"><strong>Grain Size</strong></td>
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    <td width="241" valign="top">Sieve</td>
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    <td width="252" rowspan="3" valign="top">Predict reactivity on basis of available surface area</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Relatively rapid, less expensive</td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top">Little information on fine fraction<br />No information on &quot;reactive&quot; fraction</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top">Hydrometer</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Information on fine fraction</td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top">More time consuming, more expensive<br />No information on &quot;reactive&quot; fraction</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top">BET method</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Sophisticated technique<br />Information on &quot;reactive&quot; fraction through measurement of total and specific surface area</td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top">Time consuming and expensive<br />Requires specialized equipment and personnel</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="137" rowspan="3"><strong>Chemical Composition</strong></td>
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    <td width="241" valign="top">Digestion using various acids for analysis by multiple quantitative techniques (ICP-AES, ICP-MS, AAS, NAA) </td>
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    <td width="252" rowspan="3" valign="top">Determines total potential load of constituents to environment.</td>
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    <td width="313" rowspan="3" valign="top">Comparison against site-specific baseline values and reference geologic materials<br />Surrogate for and confirmation of ABA parameters (e.g., Ca, S)<br />Surrogate for and confirmation of mineralogical composition<br />Evaluation of sample set representativeness</td>
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    <td width="319" rowspan="3" valign="top">Instrument-specific interferences<br />Volatilization<br />Elevated detection limits due to dilution </td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top">Preparation of bead/powder sample for semi-quantitative analysis by XRF</td>
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  </tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top">Portable equipment (XRF)</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="137"><strong>Paste pH/Paste Conductivity</strong></td>
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    <td width="241" valign="top">Mixture of solution and solid in desired ratio (typically 1:1 to 5:1) followed by pH/electrical conductivity measurement</td>
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    <td width="252" valign="top">Determines potential short-term effect of surficial/soluble salts on water quality</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Quick, inexpensive, easy to perform in field and laboratory<br />Can be useful screening test for operational mine waste classification and management</td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top">Lack of ability to predict long-term conditions <br />Measures stored acidity </td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="137" rowspan="12"><strong>Acid Base Accounting (ABA)</strong></td>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Sobek Method</em></strong><br />AP commonly from total sulphur<br />NP by boiling, HCl to pH 0.8-2.5</td>
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    <td width="252" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Establish overall acid generating and acid neutralizing capability of a material through independent determination<br />Identification of the need for and samples that require kinetic testing </td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Most techniques well established<br />Generally relatively fast and inexpensive<br />Provide operational screening criteria for mine waste classification and management </td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Provide no information on relative rates of acid generation and neutralization<br />Assume NP and AG sulfur or minerals are completely available for reaction<br />Can over- or under-estimate AG or NP depending on method used  <br />NPR cannot be calculated in the absence of sulphur and sulphide<br />Acid addition dependent on a subjective fizz test which can affect accuracy</td>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Modified Sobek</em></strong><br />AP from sulphide sulphur<br />NP at ambient temperature for 24 hours near boiling, HCl to pH 2.0-2.5</td>
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    <td width="252" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Prevent over-estimation of NP or AP relative to Sobek method</td>
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    <td width="319">&nbsp;</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Lapakko</em></strong><br />NP at ambient temperature up to 1 week, H2SO4 to pH 6.0</td>
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    <td width="252">&nbsp;</td>
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    <td width="313">&nbsp;</td>
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    <td width="319">&nbsp;</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>BC Research Inc. (BCRI) Initial</em></strong><br />NP at ambient temperature for 16-24 hours, H2SO4 to pH 3.5</td>
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    <td width="252">&nbsp;</td>
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    <td width="313">&nbsp;</td>
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    <td width="319">&nbsp;</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Sobek Siderite Correction</em></strong><br />as Sobek, but with H2O2</td>
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    <td width="252" valign="top">Accounts for complete oxidation of soluble metals during titration</td>
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    <td width="313">ASTM draft method uses sulphuric acid  Requires no fizz test<br />Uses pH to determine acid addition requirements<br />Negative values indicate stored acid</td>
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    <td width="319">&nbsp;</td>
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  </tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Net Carbonate Value (NCV),%CO2</em></strong><br />NCV = ANP + AGP, where<br />AGP = -1.37[(total sulphur) - (residual sulphur after pyrolysis)]<br />ANP = 3.67[(total carbon) - (carb on after HCl digestion)] (=see TIC) </td>
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    <td width="252" valign="top">Used principally by Newmont Negative ANP and positive AGP must be corrected to zero  <br />Negative NCV indicates acid generation potential<br />Confirm NCV classification using BC Research Confirmation on zone composites</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Standardized as ASTM E-1915  <br />Waste rock composites characterized with metallurgical suite for ores  <br />Several options for sulphide confirmation depending on mineralogy <br />Classification system limits uncertainty</td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top">Requires carbon-sulphur sophisticated  combustion-infrared instrumentation similar to Sobek <br />Results require conversion for comparison against data from other ABA tests in order to differentiate methods<br />Metal carbonates overestimate ANP<br />Does not account for silicate buffering or stored acidity</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Acid Buffering Characteristic Cu</em></strong><strong><em>rve</em></strong> <strong><em>(ABCC)</em></strong><br />Titration of sample with acid while continuously monitoring pH </td>
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    <td width="252" valign="top">Provides an indication of the portion of the NP that is readily available for neutralization<br />Used principally in Australia<br />Similar in nature to the BCRI Initial test</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Can be used to identify minerals responsible for neutralization by comparing against ABCCs for reference minerals<br />Well suited for measuring actual NP vs. total NP<br />Represents a less conservative method of measuring NP</td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top">Limited operational value<br />Limited basis for comparison against results from more &quot;traditional&quot; ABA tests</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Total Inorganic Carbon (TIC)</em></strong><br />TIC = (total carbon) - (carbon after HCl digestion)</td>
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    <td width="252">&nbsp;</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Measures NP associated with carbonates only</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Only provides carbonate fraction of NP<br />Can only be used in concert with total NP results<br />Will include carbonates that do not contribute NP (e.g., siderite)</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241"><strong><em>Sulphur Analysis<br /></em></strong>(total S, pyritic S, sulphide S, organic S, sulphate S, residual S)<br />Analysis requires selective digestion of ground sample with acid and measurement of sulphur by infrared or titration after combustion<br />Removal of non-sulphide and/or targeted sulphide minerals to determine sulphur species</td>
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    <td width="252" valign="top">Potential of samples to generate acid<br />Used as part of ABA testing</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Distinguishes between sulphur forms and allows identification of &quot;reactive&quot; sulphur species</td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top">Does not confirm the identity of the sulphur-bearing mineral(s)<br />Can overestimate or underestimate reactive sulphur content</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Chromium Reducible Sulphur</em></strong><br />Targets acid-volatile sulphur, elemental sulphur and pyrite sulphur through HCl digestion </td>
 +
    <td width="252" rowspan="3" valign="top">Used principally in Australia</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Considered a very reliable method for measuring low-level sulphur concentrations<br />Only measures sulphide minerals</td>
 +
    <td width="319" rowspan="3" valign="top">Limited basis for direct comparison against results from more &quot;traditional&quot; ABA tests</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Total Actual Acidity (TAA)</em></strong><br />Titration of KCl extract to pH 5.5 with NaOH</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Can define actual acidity in low-pH samples that have oxidized </td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241"><strong><em>Total Potential Acidity (TPA)</em></strong><br />Heating of KCl extract with H2O2 and titration to pH 5.5 with NaOH</td>
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    <td width="313">&nbsp;</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="137" rowspan="4"><strong>Net Acid Generating (NAG)</strong></td>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Single addition NAG</em></strong><br />Reaction with H2O2 and titration to pH 4.5 with NaOH</td>
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    <td width="252" rowspan="4" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Establishes overall acid generating capability of a material through simultaneous reaction of acid generating and acid neutralizing components<br />Identification of the need for and samples that require kinetic testing<br />Used principally by Australasian companies </td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Evaluates net acid-base balance<br />Can also be used to determine NP<br />Generally relatively fast and inexpensive<br />Provides operational screening criteria for mine waste classification and management <br />Can eliminate false positive BC Research Confirmation results for unreactive materials </td>
 +
    <td width="319" rowspan="4" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Does not distinguish between AP and NP<br />Screening method only<br />Potential interferences in presence of organic carbon and copper<br />May underestimate AP potential in high-sulphide material due to incomplete oxidation<br />Sensitive to quality of H2O2 </td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Sequential NAG</em></strong><br />Multi-stage repeat of single-addition NAG tests until NAG pH is greater than 4.5</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Overcomes incomplete oxidation<br />Can be used to approximate lag time to acid generation</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Modified NAG</em></strong><br />As single addition NAG, but accounts for potential effect from organic matter<br />Extended boiling and assay of the NAG solution for S, Ca, Mg and TOC </td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Accounts for potential effect from organic matter</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Kinetic NAG</em></strong><br />As single addition NAG but with monitoring of temperature, pH and EC during reaction with H2O2</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Provides an indication of reaction kinetics and lag time</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="137" rowspan="6"><strong>Mineralogical Composition</strong></td>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Visual/Optical Microscopy</em></strong><br />Hand lens, binocular microscope</td>
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    <td width="252" rowspan="6" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Identify primary and secondary minerals that could affect acid generation potential and contact water quality<br />With increasing sophistication of techniques, also information on texture, mineral composition and morphology to evaluate mineral reactivity and availability for weathering reactions that can affect acid generation and leaching potential </td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Provide information on acid generating potential and NP, availability of minerals for weathering<br />Corroborate lithologic information<br />Essential for understanding of geochemical controls on contact water quality and as inputs to geochemical model simulations </td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top">Qualitative</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>X-ray diffraction (XRD)</em></strong><br />Qualitative or semi-quantitative (Rietveld) analysis</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top">Semi-quantitative at best <br clear="all" />
 +
      High detection limit ~1% <br clear="all" />
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      Capable of identifying crystalline minerals only</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Petrographic analysis</em></strong><br />Reflection or transmission petrographic microscope</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
 +
    <td width="319" rowspan="3" valign="top">Requires sophisticated instrumentation and specialized personnel for interpretation</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>SEM/EDS</em></strong><br />Electron beam scan for mineral identification</td>
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    <td width="313" valign="top">Surpasses combustion-infrared methods in quantifying trace sulfide mineral concentrations </td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Electron microprobe</em></strong><br />Like SEM but optimized for chemical analysis </td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Portable equipment (PIMA)</em></strong><br />Infrared analyzer</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Portable<br />Particularly suited for hydrated minerals</td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top">Not capable of identifying all minerals</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="137" rowspan="17"><strong>Short-Term Leach Tests</strong></td>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>SPLP (Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure)</em></strong><br />US EPA Method 1312<br />20:1 solution to solid<br />Deionized water or dilute sulphuric/nitric acid to pH 4.2 or 5.0<br />&lt; 9.5 mm <br />18 ± 2 hours<br />Variant: <strong><em>Standard Test Method for Shake Extraction of Mining Waste by the Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure</em></strong><br />ASTM D 6234</td>
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    <td width="252" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Measures readily soluble constituents of mine and process wastes</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Provides indication of leaching of salts<br />Identifies readily dissolvable constituents</td>
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    <td width="319" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />Provides no information on transient processes and long-term conditions<br />only simulates short-term interaction<br />high liquid to solid ratio may underestimate leachability<br />grain size reduction may increase reactivity</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>TCLP (Toxicity Characteristic Le</em></strong><strong><em>aching Procedure)</em></strong><br />US EPA Method 1311<br />20:1 solution to solid ratio<br />acetic acid/acetate buffer<br />&lt; 9.5 mm <br />18 ± 2 hours </td>
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    <td width="252" valign="top">Used to determine if waste is hazardous under RCRA<br />Intended to simulate municipal landfill containing organic wastes</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Applicable standards available</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Use of acetic acid/acetate buffers not appropriate for mining applications, Short list of metals evaluated </td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Meteoric Water Mobility Procedure (MWMP)</em></strong><br />1:1 solution to solid ratio<br />reagent-grade water<br />&lt; 2 inch<br />&lt; 48 hours</td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Same as for SPLP<br />Primarily used in Nevada</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Quasi-dynamic test<br />More realistic than SPLP due to higher solid to solution ratio, longer duration and coarser material<br />Applicable standards available</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Weaker lixiviant than acidified SPLP</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>California Waste Extraction Test (WET)</em></strong><br />10:1 solution to solid ratio<br />dilute sodium citrate solution<br />&lt; 2 mm <br />48 hours </td>
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    <td width="252" valign="top">Intended to simulate municipal landfill containing organic wastes <br />Primarily used in California</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Lower liquid to solid ratio and longer test duration than SPLP and TCLP<br />Applicable standards available</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Use of sodium citrate not appropriate for mining applications</td>
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  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Modified Test for Shake Extraction of Solid Waste with Water</em></strong><br />4:1 solution to solid ratio<br />reagent-grade water adjusted to pH 5.5 with carbonic acid<br />18 hours </td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Same as for SPLP</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Lower liquid to solid ratio than SPLP</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
 +
  </tr>
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  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>British Columbia Special Waste Extraction Procedure (BC SWEP)</em></strong><br />20:1 solution to solid ratio<br />acetic acid<br />&lt; 9.5 mm <br />24 hours<br /><strong><em>Modification for mining </em></strong><strong><em>wastes</em></strong> <br />3:1 solution to solid ratio<br />dilute hydrochloric acid </td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Similar to TCLP for normal procedure<br />Similar to SPLP and ASTM for modified procedure</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Modified: lower solution to solid ratio than SPLP and ASTM</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Intended to simulate municipal landfill containing organic wastes <br />Same as for SPLP</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
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    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>NAG Test with Leachate Analysis</em></strong><br />100:1 solution to solid ratio<br />15% H2O2 solution<br />&lt; 75 um <br />Until boiling or effervescing ceases</td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Can be used to determine &quot;terminal&quot; water quality after complete oxidation of reactive sulphides</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">&quot;Short-cut&quot; to terminal conditions</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Leachate contains all reaction products from sulphide oxidation<br />High solution to solid ratio<br />Significant grain size reduction</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Characterization of Waste - Leaching - Compliance Test for Leaching of Granular Materials and Sludge</em></strong><br />EN 12457 1<br />One stage test<br />2:1 solution to solid ratio<br />&lt; 4 mm <br />EN 12457-2<br />One stage test<br />10:1 solution to solid ratio<br />&lt; 4 mm <br />EN 12457-3<br />Two stage test<br />2:1 and 8:1 solution to solid ratios<br />&lt; 4 mm <br />EN 12457-4<br />One stage test<br />10:1 solution to solid ratio<br />&lt; 10 mm <br /><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />distilled/demineralized/deionized water<br />24 hours</td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top"><strong>All European Union (EU) Methods:</strong><br />Basic characterization: obtain information on leaching behavior and characteristics<br />Compliance: determine whether waste complies with specific reference values </td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top"><strong>All European Union (EU) Methods:</strong><br />Test protocol is adjusted based on information needs and site-specific conditions<br />Applicable standards available (expressed as loadings) </td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Same as for SPLP</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Characterization of Waste - Leaching </em></strong><strong><em>Behavior</em></strong><strong><em> Tests - Up-flow Percolation Test</em></strong><br />CEN/TS 14405<br />10:1 solution to solid ratio<br />&lt; 10 mm <br />demineralized water<br />duration as needed </td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Used to determine leachability of a waste under hydraulically dynamic conditions (EU)</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Test can be used to establish the distinction between various release mechanisms (e.g., first flush vs. steady state leaching)</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Same as for MWMP<br />Test developed for landfills</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Characterization of Waste - Leaching </em></strong><strong><em>Behavior</em></strong><strong><em> Tests - Influence of pH on Leaching with Initial Acid/Base</em></strong> Addition<br />CEN/TS 14429<br />10:1 solution to solid ratio<br />at least 8 individual solutions of different pH using nitric acid or sodium hydroxide covering the range pH 4-12<br />95% &lt; 1 mm<br />48 hours</td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Used to determine influence of pH on waste leachability and buffering capacity (EU)</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Leachate analyzed for inorganic constituents (as opposed to prCEN/TS 15364)<br />pH is allowed to fluctuate after initial addition of acid or base<br />Allows evaluation of buffering capacity</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Same as for SPLP<br />Test developed for landfills</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Characterization of Waste - Leaching </em></strong><strong><em>Behavior</em></strong><strong><em> Tests - Influence of pH on Leaching with Continuous pH-Control</em></strong><br />EN 14997<br />10:1 solution to solid ratio<br />at least 8 individual solutions of different pH using nitric acid or sodium hydroxide covering the range pH 4-12<br />95% &lt; 1 mm<br />48 hours</td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Used to determine influence of pH on waste leachability (EU)</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Leachate analyzed for inorganic constituents (as opposed to prCEN/TS 15364)<br clear="all" />
 +
      pH is maintained at constant value after initial addition of acid or base<br clear="all" />
 +
      Allows evaluation of leachability under constant pH</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Same as for SPLP<br clear="all" />
 +
      Test developed for landfills</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Characterization of Waste - Leaching </em></strong><strong><em>Behavior</em></strong><strong><em> Tests - Acid and Base </em></strong><strong><em>Neutralization</em></strong><strong><em> Capacity Test</em></strong><br />CEN/TS 15364<br />10:1 solution to solid ratio<br />at least 8 individual solutions of different pH using nitric acid or sodium hydroxide covering the range pH 4-12<br />95% &lt; 1 mm<br />48 hours </td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Used to determine final pH of a waste as well as assess consequences of external influences (carbonation, oxidation) on the final pH (EU)</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Same as for SPLP<br />Test developed for landfills<br />Leachate only analyzed for pH</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Lixiviação de Resíduos</em></strong><br />NBR 10005<br />16:1 solution to solid ratio<br />acetic acid<br />&lt; 9.5 mm <br />24 hours</td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Used to determine if mine waste is hazardous under solid waste regulations (Brazil)<br />Intended to simulate municipal landfill containing organic wastes</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Applicable standards available</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Use of acetic acid not appropriate for mining applications</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Solubilização de Resíduos</em></strong><br />NBR 10006<br />4:1 solution to solid ratio<br />deionized water<br />grain size not specified<br />7 d<strong>ays</strong></td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Used to evaluate potential for impacts to groundwater by comparison against groundwater quality standards (Brazil)</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Applicable standards available<br />Lower solution to solid ratio and longer duration than SPLP</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Same as for SPLP</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Test Method Standard for Leaching Toxicity of Solid Wastes - Roll Over Leaching Procedure</em></strong><br />GB5086.1-1997<br />10:1 solution to solid ratio<br />deionized/distilled water<br />&lt; 5 mm <br />18 hours </td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Used to determine if mine waste is hazardous under solid waste regulations by comparison against Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standards (China)</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Applicable standards available</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Same as for SPLP</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Test Method Standard for Leaching Toxicity of Solid Wastes - Horizontal Vibration Extraction Proc</em></strong><strong><em>edure</em></strong><br />GB5086.2-1997<br />10:1 solution to solid ratio<br />deionized/distilled water<br />&lt; 3 mm <br />24 hours </td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">Used to determine if mine waste is hazardous under solid waste regulations by comparison against Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standards (China)</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Applicable standards available</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Same as for SPLP</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Sequential Extraction<br /></em></strong>Variety of methods using different extractants to evaluate leachability from targeted fractions of mine waste<br />Methods may vary depending on analyte of interest and target fraction of interest</td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">To evaluate associations between constituents of interests and different fractions of the solid<br />Allows for determination of the labile portion of the solid phase</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Understanding associations of constituents with different fractions of the solid assists in understanding geochemical conditions under which they may be released to the environment</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Involved procedure<br />Many reagents<br />Most reagents not uniquely selective to targeted fraction<br />Use of some reagents precludes analysis of certain constituents<br />No applicable standards</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="137" rowspan="2"><strong>Long-Term Leach Tests</strong></td>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Humidity Cell Test (HCT)</em></strong><br />ASTM D5744-96<br />0.5:1 or 1:1 solution to solid ratio<br />deionized water<br />different dimensions for &lt; 6.3 mm and &lt;150 μm<br />weekly cycle of 3-day alternating dry air and wet air followed by leach<br />generally 20-week minimum but can run longer<br />weekly analysis of diagnostic ARD parameters (e.g., pH, SC, Fe, SO4, Eh, Ca, Mg, alkalinity)<br />generally less-frequent analysis for comprehensive metals and major ions </td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">To determine long-term weathering rates (sulphide oxidation, dissolution of neutralizing minerals, trace metal release) under oxygenated conditions<br />To evaluate lag time to acid generation<br />To provide reaction rates for geochemical modeling</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Standardized test<br />Provides kinetic and steady-state leaching information and is recommended test for determination of weathering rates of primary minerals</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Not suitable for evaluation of saturated materials<br />Grain size reduction may increase reactivity</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Column Test</em></strong><br />variable solution to solid ratio<br />generally deionized water, groundwater  or natural precipitation<br />generally &lt; 25 mm<br />variable dimension, but generally larger than HCT<br />leaching cycles can vary and include maintaining water over sample, alternate flooding and draining, and recirculating leachate </td>
 +
    <td width="252" valign="top">As above, but can simulate leaching in variably saturated or oxygen-deficient conditions<br />To simulate environmental performance of amended mine wastes and/or cover designs</td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Frequently closer to field conditions than HCT<br />Can simulate different degrees of saturation<br />Can simulate remedial alternatives<br />Simulates combined weathering of primary and secondary minerals</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Not standardized<br />Potential for channeling through preferential flowpaths<br />Grain size reduction may increase reactivity<br />Without entire load of weathering products from primary minerals, reaction rates for primary minerals and extent of secondary precipitation cannot be measured</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="137" rowspan="3"><strong>Field Tests</strong></td>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Wall Washing</em></strong><br />1L rinse of 1 × 1 m surface area<br />distilled water</td>
 +
    <td width="252" rowspan="3" valign="top"><strong>All Methods:</strong><br />To estimate long-term potential of mine materials to generate acid and leach metals using on-site materials </td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Rapid<br />Measures leachate quality from in situ material<br />Can be repeated to obtain temporal component</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">May be difficult to establish accurate mass balance due to loss of solution</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>US Geological Survey Field Leach Test (FLT)</em></strong><br />20:1 solution to solid ratio<br />deionized water<br />&lt; 2 mm <br />5 minutes </td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Can be performed in the field<br />Rapid and inexpensive method to characterize chemical reactivity and water-soluble fraction<br />Field screening method that can be used as surrogate for SPLP due to similarity in approach and results</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Same as for SPLP</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
  <tr>
 +
    <td width="241" valign="top"><strong><em>Field Cells/Test Pads/Mine Facilities</em></strong><br />Monitoring of increasingly larger volumes of mine wastes<br />Ambient precipitation or irrigation<br />Degree of grain size reduction required decreases with increasing size of test<br />Test duration months to years </td>
 +
    <td width="313" valign="top">Test are conducted under actual field conditions<br />Can collect samples after transient events<br />Larger sample size results in enhanced test charge representativeness<br />With increasing test size, effects from grain size reduction, sample heterogeneity and preferential pathways reduced<br />With increasing test size, empirical results increasingly directly applicable to mine facility</td>
 +
    <td width="319" valign="top">Comprehensive characterization of test sample may not be feasible<br />Complete understanding of water balance may not be feasible<br />Complexity of tested system may limit interpretive and predictive value of observations</td>
 +
  </tr>
 +
</table>

Revision as of 16:46, 30 January 2009

Test Type

Test Methods and Description

Use in Water Quality Prediction

Advantages

Limitations

Grain Size Sieve Predict reactivity on basis of available surface area Relatively rapid, less expensive Little information on fine fraction
No information on "reactive" fraction
Hydrometer Information on fine fraction More time consuming, more expensive
No information on "reactive" fraction
BET method Sophisticated technique
Information on "reactive" fraction through measurement of total and specific surface area
Time consuming and expensive
Requires specialized equipment and personnel
Chemical Composition Digestion using various acids for analysis by multiple quantitative techniques (ICP-AES, ICP-MS, AAS, NAA) Determines total potential load of constituents to environment. Comparison against site-specific baseline values and reference geologic materials
Surrogate for and confirmation of ABA parameters (e.g., Ca, S)
Surrogate for and confirmation of mineralogical composition
Evaluation of sample set representativeness
Instrument-specific interferences
Volatilization
Elevated detection limits due to dilution
Preparation of bead/powder sample for semi-quantitative analysis by XRF
Portable equipment (XRF)
Paste pH/Paste Conductivity Mixture of solution and solid in desired ratio (typically 1:1 to 5:1) followed by pH/electrical conductivity measurement Determines potential short-term effect of surficial/soluble salts on water quality Quick, inexpensive, easy to perform in field and laboratory
Can be useful screening test for operational mine waste classification and management
Lack of ability to predict long-term conditions
Measures stored acidity
Acid Base Accounting (ABA) Sobek Method
AP commonly from total sulphur
NP by boiling, HCl to pH 0.8-2.5
All Methods:
Establish overall acid generating and acid neutralizing capability of a material through independent determination
Identification of the need for and samples that require kinetic testing
All Methods:
Most techniques well established
Generally relatively fast and inexpensive
Provide operational screening criteria for mine waste classification and management
All Methods:
Provide no information on relative rates of acid generation and neutralization
Assume NP and AG sulfur or minerals are completely available for reaction
Can over- or under-estimate AG or NP depending on method used 
NPR cannot be calculated in the absence of sulphur and sulphide
Acid addition dependent on a subjective fizz test which can affect accuracy
Modified Sobek
AP from sulphide sulphur
NP at ambient temperature for 24 hours near boiling, HCl to pH 2.0-2.5
  Prevent over-estimation of NP or AP relative to Sobek method  
Lapakko
NP at ambient temperature up to 1 week, H2SO4 to pH 6.0
     
BC Research Inc. (BCRI) Initial
NP at ambient temperature for 16-24 hours, H2SO4 to pH 3.5
     
Sobek Siderite Correction
as Sobek, but with H2O2
Accounts for complete oxidation of soluble metals during titration ASTM draft method uses sulphuric acid  Requires no fizz test
Uses pH to determine acid addition requirements
Negative values indicate stored acid
 
Net Carbonate Value (NCV),%CO2
NCV = ANP + AGP, where
AGP = -1.37[(total sulphur) - (residual sulphur after pyrolysis)]
ANP = 3.67[(total carbon) - (carb on after HCl digestion)] (=see TIC)
Used principally by Newmont Negative ANP and positive AGP must be corrected to zero 
Negative NCV indicates acid generation potential
Confirm NCV classification using BC Research Confirmation on zone composites
Standardized as ASTM E-1915 
Waste rock composites characterized with metallurgical suite for ores 
Several options for sulphide confirmation depending on mineralogy
Classification system limits uncertainty
Requires carbon-sulphur sophisticated  combustion-infrared instrumentation similar to Sobek
Results require conversion for comparison against data from other ABA tests in order to differentiate methods
Metal carbonates overestimate ANP
Does not account for silicate buffering or stored acidity
Acid Buffering Characteristic Curve (ABCC)
Titration of sample with acid while continuously monitoring pH
Provides an indication of the portion of the NP that is readily available for neutralization
Used principally in Australia
Similar in nature to the BCRI Initial test
Can be used to identify minerals responsible for neutralization by comparing against ABCCs for reference minerals
Well suited for measuring actual NP vs. total NP
Represents a less conservative method of measuring NP
Limited operational value
Limited basis for comparison against results from more "traditional" ABA tests
Total Inorganic Carbon (TIC)
TIC = (total carbon) - (carbon after HCl digestion)
  Measures NP associated with carbonates only Only provides carbonate fraction of NP
Can only be used in concert with total NP results
Will include carbonates that do not contribute NP (e.g., siderite)
Sulphur Analysis
(total S, pyritic S, sulphide S, organic S, sulphate S, residual S)
Analysis requires selective digestion of ground sample with acid and measurement of sulphur by infrared or titration after combustion
Removal of non-sulphide and/or targeted sulphide minerals to determine sulphur species
Potential of samples to generate acid
Used as part of ABA testing
Distinguishes between sulphur forms and allows identification of "reactive" sulphur species Does not confirm the identity of the sulphur-bearing mineral(s)
Can overestimate or underestimate reactive sulphur content
Chromium Reducible Sulphur
Targets acid-volatile sulphur, elemental sulphur and pyrite sulphur through HCl digestion
Used principally in Australia Considered a very reliable method for measuring low-level sulphur concentrations
Only measures sulphide minerals
Limited basis for direct comparison against results from more "traditional" ABA tests
Total Actual Acidity (TAA)
Titration of KCl extract to pH 5.5 with NaOH
Can define actual acidity in low-pH samples that have oxidized
Total Potential Acidity (TPA)
Heating of KCl extract with H2O2 and titration to pH 5.5 with NaOH
 
Net Acid Generating (NAG) Single addition NAG
Reaction with H2O2 and titration to pH 4.5 with NaOH
All Methods:
Establishes overall acid generating capability of a material through simultaneous reaction of acid generating and acid neutralizing components
Identification of the need for and samples that require kinetic testing
Used principally by Australasian companies
All Methods:
Evaluates net acid-base balance
Can also be used to determine NP
Generally relatively fast and inexpensive
Provides operational screening criteria for mine waste classification and management
Can eliminate false positive BC Research Confirmation results for unreactive materials
All Methods:
Does not distinguish between AP and NP
Screening method only
Potential interferences in presence of organic carbon and copper
May underestimate AP potential in high-sulphide material due to incomplete oxidation
Sensitive to quality of H2O2
Sequential NAG
Multi-stage repeat of single-addition NAG tests until NAG pH is greater than 4.5
Overcomes incomplete oxidation
Can be used to approximate lag time to acid generation
Modified NAG
As single addition NAG, but accounts for potential effect from organic matter
Extended boiling and assay of the NAG solution for S, Ca, Mg and TOC
Accounts for potential effect from organic matter
Kinetic NAG
As single addition NAG but with monitoring of temperature, pH and EC during reaction with H2O2
Provides an indication of reaction kinetics and lag time
Mineralogical Composition Visual/Optical Microscopy
Hand lens, binocular microscope
All Methods:
Identify primary and secondary minerals that could affect acid generation potential and contact water quality
With increasing sophistication of techniques, also information on texture, mineral composition and morphology to evaluate mineral reactivity and availability for weathering reactions that can affect acid generation and leaching potential
All Methods:
Provide information on acid generating potential and NP, availability of minerals for weathering
Corroborate lithologic information
Essential for understanding of geochemical controls on contact water quality and as inputs to geochemical model simulations
Qualitative
X-ray diffraction (XRD)
Qualitative or semi-quantitative (Rietveld) analysis
  Semi-quantitative at best
     High detection limit ~1% 
Capable of identifying crystalline minerals only
Petrographic analysis
Reflection or transmission petrographic microscope
  Requires sophisticated instrumentation and specialized personnel for interpretation
SEM/EDS
Electron beam scan for mineral identification
Surpasses combustion-infrared methods in quantifying trace sulfide mineral concentrations
Electron microprobe
Like SEM but optimized for chemical analysis
 
Portable equipment (PIMA)
Infrared analyzer
Portable
Particularly suited for hydrated minerals
Not capable of identifying all minerals
Short-Term Leach Tests SPLP (Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure)
US EPA Method 1312
20:1 solution to solid
Deionized water or dilute sulphuric/nitric acid to pH 4.2 or 5.0
< 9.5 mm
18 ± 2 hours
Variant: Standard Test Method for Shake Extraction of Mining Waste by the Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure
ASTM D 6234
All Methods:
Measures readily soluble constituents of mine and process wastes
All Methods:
Provides indication of leaching of salts
Identifies readily dissolvable constituents
All Methods:
Provides no information on transient processes and long-term conditions
only simulates short-term interaction
high liquid to solid ratio may underestimate leachability
grain size reduction may increase reactivity
TCLP (Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure)
US EPA Method 1311
20:1 solution to solid ratio
acetic acid/acetate buffer
< 9.5 mm
18 ± 2 hours
Used to determine if waste is hazardous under RCRA
Intended to simulate municipal landfill containing organic wastes
Applicable standards available Use of acetic acid/acetate buffers not appropriate for mining applications, Short list of metals evaluated
Meteoric Water Mobility Procedure (MWMP)
1:1 solution to solid ratio
reagent-grade water
< 2 inch
< 48 hours
Same as for SPLP
Primarily used in Nevada
Quasi-dynamic test
More realistic than SPLP due to higher solid to solution ratio, longer duration and coarser material
Applicable standards available
Weaker lixiviant than acidified SPLP
California Waste Extraction Test (WET)
10:1 solution to solid ratio
dilute sodium citrate solution
< 2 mm
48 hours
Intended to simulate municipal landfill containing organic wastes
Primarily used in California
Lower liquid to solid ratio and longer test duration than SPLP and TCLP
Applicable standards available
Use of sodium citrate not appropriate for mining applications
Modified Test for Shake Extraction of Solid Waste with Water
4:1 solution to solid ratio
reagent-grade water adjusted to pH 5.5 with carbonic acid
18 hours
Same as for SPLP Lower liquid to solid ratio than SPLP  
British Columbia Special Waste Extraction Procedure (BC SWEP)
20:1 solution to solid ratio
acetic acid
< 9.5 mm
24 hours
Modification for mining wastes
3:1 solution to solid ratio
dilute hydrochloric acid
Similar to TCLP for normal procedure
Similar to SPLP and ASTM for modified procedure
Modified: lower solution to solid ratio than SPLP and ASTM Intended to simulate municipal landfill containing organic wastes
Same as for SPLP
NAG Test with Leachate Analysis
100:1 solution to solid ratio
15% H2O2 solution
< 75 um
Until boiling or effervescing ceases
Can be used to determine "terminal" water quality after complete oxidation of reactive sulphides "Short-cut" to terminal conditions Leachate contains all reaction products from sulphide oxidation
High solution to solid ratio
Significant grain size reduction
Characterization of Waste - Leaching - Compliance Test for Leaching of Granular Materials and Sludge
EN 12457 1
One stage test
2:1 solution to solid ratio
< 4 mm
EN 12457-2
One stage test
10:1 solution to solid ratio
< 4 mm
EN 12457-3
Two stage test
2:1 and 8:1 solution to solid ratios
< 4 mm
EN 12457-4
One stage test
10:1 solution to solid ratio
< 10 mm
All Methods:
distilled/demineralized/deionized water
24 hours
All European Union (EU) Methods:
Basic characterization: obtain information on leaching behavior and characteristics
Compliance: determine whether waste complies with specific reference values
All European Union (EU) Methods:
Test protocol is adjusted based on information needs and site-specific conditions
Applicable standards available (expressed as loadings)
Same as for SPLP
Characterization of Waste - Leaching Behavior Tests - Up-flow Percolation Test
CEN/TS 14405
10:1 solution to solid ratio
< 10 mm
demineralized water
duration as needed
Used to determine leachability of a waste under hydraulically dynamic conditions (EU) Test can be used to establish the distinction between various release mechanisms (e.g., first flush vs. steady state leaching) Same as for MWMP
Test developed for landfills
Characterization of Waste - Leaching Behavior Tests - Influence of pH on Leaching with Initial Acid/Base Addition
CEN/TS 14429
10:1 solution to solid ratio
at least 8 individual solutions of different pH using nitric acid or sodium hydroxide covering the range pH 4-12
95% < 1 mm
48 hours
Used to determine influence of pH on waste leachability and buffering capacity (EU) Leachate analyzed for inorganic constituents (as opposed to prCEN/TS 15364)
pH is allowed to fluctuate after initial addition of acid or base
Allows evaluation of buffering capacity
Same as for SPLP
Test developed for landfills
Characterization of Waste - Leaching Behavior Tests - Influence of pH on Leaching with Continuous pH-Control
EN 14997
10:1 solution to solid ratio
at least 8 individual solutions of different pH using nitric acid or sodium hydroxide covering the range pH 4-12
95% < 1 mm
48 hours
Used to determine influence of pH on waste leachability (EU) Leachate analyzed for inorganic constituents (as opposed to prCEN/TS 15364)
     pH is maintained at constant value after initial addition of acid or base
Allows evaluation of leachability under constant pH
Same as for SPLP
Test developed for landfills
Characterization of Waste - Leaching Behavior Tests - Acid and Base Neutralization Capacity Test
CEN/TS 15364
10:1 solution to solid ratio
at least 8 individual solutions of different pH using nitric acid or sodium hydroxide covering the range pH 4-12
95% < 1 mm
48 hours
Used to determine final pH of a waste as well as assess consequences of external influences (carbonation, oxidation) on the final pH (EU)   Same as for SPLP
Test developed for landfills
Leachate only analyzed for pH
Lixiviação de Resíduos
NBR 10005
16:1 solution to solid ratio
acetic acid
< 9.5 mm
24 hours
Used to determine if mine waste is hazardous under solid waste regulations (Brazil)
Intended to simulate municipal landfill containing organic wastes
Applicable standards available Use of acetic acid not appropriate for mining applications
Solubilização de Resíduos
NBR 10006
4:1 solution to solid ratio
deionized water
grain size not specified
7 days
Used to evaluate potential for impacts to groundwater by comparison against groundwater quality standards (Brazil) Applicable standards available
Lower solution to solid ratio and longer duration than SPLP
Same as for SPLP
Test Method Standard for Leaching Toxicity of Solid Wastes - Roll Over Leaching Procedure
GB5086.1-1997
10:1 solution to solid ratio
deionized/distilled water
< 5 mm
18 hours
Used to determine if mine waste is hazardous under solid waste regulations by comparison against Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standards (China) Applicable standards available Same as for SPLP
Test Method Standard for Leaching Toxicity of Solid Wastes - Horizontal Vibration Extraction Procedure
GB5086.2-1997
10:1 solution to solid ratio
deionized/distilled water
< 3 mm
24 hours
Used to determine if mine waste is hazardous under solid waste regulations by comparison against Integrated Wastewater Discharge Standards (China) Applicable standards available Same as for SPLP
Sequential Extraction
Variety of methods using different extractants to evaluate leachability from targeted fractions of mine waste
Methods may vary depending on analyte of interest and target fraction of interest
To evaluate associations between constituents of interests and different fractions of the solid
Allows for determination of the labile portion of the solid phase
Understanding associations of constituents with different fractions of the solid assists in understanding geochemical conditions under which they may be released to the environment Involved procedure
Many reagents
Most reagents not uniquely selective to targeted fraction
Use of some reagents precludes analysis of certain constituents
No applicable standards
Long-Term Leach Tests Humidity Cell Test (HCT)
ASTM D5744-96
0.5:1 or 1:1 solution to solid ratio
deionized water
different dimensions for < 6.3 mm and <150 μm
weekly cycle of 3-day alternating dry air and wet air followed by leach
generally 20-week minimum but can run longer
weekly analysis of diagnostic ARD parameters (e.g., pH, SC, Fe, SO4, Eh, Ca, Mg, alkalinity)
generally less-frequent analysis for comprehensive metals and major ions
To determine long-term weathering rates (sulphide oxidation, dissolution of neutralizing minerals, trace metal release) under oxygenated conditions
To evaluate lag time to acid generation
To provide reaction rates for geochemical modeling
Standardized test
Provides kinetic and steady-state leaching information and is recommended test for determination of weathering rates of primary minerals
Not suitable for evaluation of saturated materials
Grain size reduction may increase reactivity
Column Test
variable solution to solid ratio
generally deionized water, groundwater  or natural precipitation
generally < 25 mm
variable dimension, but generally larger than HCT
leaching cycles can vary and include maintaining water over sample, alternate flooding and draining, and recirculating leachate
As above, but can simulate leaching in variably saturated or oxygen-deficient conditions
To simulate environmental performance of amended mine wastes and/or cover designs
Frequently closer to field conditions than HCT
Can simulate different degrees of saturation
Can simulate remedial alternatives
Simulates combined weathering of primary and secondary minerals
Not standardized
Potential for channeling through preferential flowpaths
Grain size reduction may increase reactivity
Without entire load of weathering products from primary minerals, reaction rates for primary minerals and extent of secondary precipitation cannot be measured
Field Tests Wall Washing
1L rinse of 1 × 1 m surface area
distilled water
All Methods:
To estimate long-term potential of mine materials to generate acid and leach metals using on-site materials
Rapid
Measures leachate quality from in situ material
Can be repeated to obtain temporal component
May be difficult to establish accurate mass balance due to loss of solution
US Geological Survey Field Leach Test (FLT)
20:1 solution to solid ratio
deionized water
< 2 mm
5 minutes
Can be performed in the field
Rapid and inexpensive method to characterize chemical reactivity and water-soluble fraction
Field screening method that can be used as surrogate for SPLP due to similarity in approach and results
Same as for SPLP
Field Cells/Test Pads/Mine Facilities
Monitoring of increasingly larger volumes of mine wastes
Ambient precipitation or irrigation
Degree of grain size reduction required decreases with increasing size of test
Test duration months to years
Test are conducted under actual field conditions
Can collect samples after transient events
Larger sample size results in enhanced test charge representativeness
With increasing test size, effects from grain size reduction, sample heterogeneity and preferential pathways reduced
With increasing test size, empirical results increasingly directly applicable to mine facility
Comprehensive characterization of test sample may not be feasible
Complete understanding of water balance may not be feasible
Complexity of tested system may limit interpretive and predictive value of observations